RESEARCH WORK
Characteristics and potential of Moringa oleifera, Lamark. An alternative for animal feeding
A. Pérez, Tania Sánchez, Nayda Armengol y F. Reyes
Estación Experimental de Pastos y Forrajes «Indio Hatuey» Central España Republicana CP 44280, Matanzas, Cuba
E-mail: arisitides.perez@indio.atenas.inf.cu
ABSTRACT
Moringa oleifera is the most widely known species of the Moringa genus. It is a tree which originated in the south of the Himalayas, northeast India, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is distributed over a large part of the planet and in Central America; it is known with different common names: drumstick tree, acacia and French jasmine, among others. This paper addresses different aspects of this species, such as: its origin and distribution, agronomic factors and biomass production, chemical composition and utilization. It is a plant which stands out for its multiple usages and adaptation to different edaphoclimatic conditions, for which it constitutes a choice for feeding, especially in tropical countries. The tree M. oleifera is concluded to have large ecological plasticity, because it is capable of adapting to the most diverse soil and climate conditions. Its nutritional value and high biomass yields make it an important plant genetic resource in production systems. It is also a plant which can be used as living fence, windbreak, green manure and for ethanol and gum production, etc.; hence it is an interesting species for the tropics.
Key words: Agronomic characteristics, animal feeding, Moringa oleifera
INTRODUCTION
Origin, distribution and synonymy M. oleifera is the most known species of the Moringa genus. It is tree which originated in the south of the Himalayas, northeast India, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Pakistan. It is distributed over a large part of the planet, and in Central America it was introduced in the 1920's as ornamental plant and for living fences (Foidl et al., 1999).
García Roa (2003) knows it with the common name marango, it belongs to the Moringaceae family and its scientific name is Moringa oleifera Lam.; while Reyes (2006) identifies M. oleifera Lam. with the following synonyms: (syns. M. pterygosperma Gaert., M. moringa (L.) Millsp., M. nux-ben Perr., Hyperanthera moringa Willd., and Guilandina moringa Lam.).
The Fitomed Technical Commission (2010) reports that it is also known with other common names, such as drumstick tree, ben, acacia and French jasmine. It is a tree that grows up to 9 m high. The leaves are compound and are disposed in groups of folioles, with five pairs of them arranged on the main petiole and a foliole on the terminal part. The leaves are tripinnate alternate, with a length of 30-70 cm.
Agronomic characteristics
It is a perennial tree, but little longevous, which can live at most 20 years, although annual varieties have been obtained in India. It is a very fast-growing species. It contributes a high quantity of nutrients to the soil, besides protecting it from such external factors as erosion, desiccation and high temperatures (Jyothi et al., 1990; Morton, 1991).
Ecology
In its natural habitat it grows up to 1 400 m of altitude, along the biggest rivers on alluvial, sandy or gravel soils (Troup, 1921).
Ramachandran et al. (1980) stated that it is highly drought-resistant and cultivated in arid and semiarid regions of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia and Eastern Africa, where rainfall only reaches 300 mm per year.
According to Reyes (2006), moringa is drought-resistant and tolerates annual rainfall of 500 to 1 500 mm. It also grows on a soil pH range between 4,5 and 8, except on heavy clays, and it prefers neutral or slightly acid soils.
On the other hand, Croess and Villalobos (2008) state that Moringa is a plant genus with many species distributed in arid and semiarid zones of India, Pakistan and south Himalayas.
In turn, García Roa (2003) explains that in Central America it is found in zones with temperatures from 6 to 38ºC. It is cold-resistant for a short period of time, but not lower than 2-3ºC. In temperatures lower than 14ºC it does not flower and it can only be vegetatively reproduced (by cuttings). It is located from sea level to 1 800 masl. It is a species adapted to a large soil variety.
Falasca and Bernabé (2003) stated that in its natural habit mean annual temperatures show large fluctuations. During the coldest months it stands between -1ºC and 3ºC; while in the hottest ones, from 38ºC to 48ºC (Troup, 1921).
In general, it can be said that it is a species of high ecological plasticity, because it is located under different soil, rainfall and temperature conditions.
Price (2000) in the reports about the BIOMASA Research Project (which is conducted in Nicaragua), says that moringa can be intensively planted. At this production level, the nutrient requisites per hectare per year are: 1,8 kg calcium; 0,5 kg copper; 1,4 kg magnesium; 380 kg phosphorus; 0,6 kg boron; 280 kg nitrogen and 0,3 kg zinc. It is possible that the soils from other sites provide part of these requisites and the fertilizers can be different.
Table 1 shows the nutrient extraction data in marango plantations. The high productivity implies a higher nutrient extraction from the soil, for which in its intensive cultivation fertilization should be considered (Foidl et al., 1999).
Flowers and fruits
Falasca and Bernabé (2008) state that the flowers are bisexual with white petals and yellow stamens. In some regions it flowers only once a year, but it can flower twice a year; such is the case of Caribbean countries, like Cuba. The flowers are pollinated by bees, other insects and some birds (Jyothi et al., 1990; Morton, 1991).
The Fitomed Technical Commission (2010) reports that the flowers are grouped in large axillary panicles; they have five petals, unequal and white. Capsular fruit, which is lineal, 3-angular, pendulum-shaped, up to 40 cm long and 1 or 2 cm wide. The seeds are winged.
FAO-OMS (2005) reports fruits in trilobulated, dehiscent capsules, 20 to 40 cm long. They contain 15-25 seeds per fruit. The seeds are round-shaped and dark chestnut-colored, with three whitish wings. Each tree can produce from 15 000 to 25 000 seeds per year.
Planting, establishment and plantation management
According to García Roa (2003), this species can be propagated in two ways: sexual and asexual. The most used for plantations is the sexual one, especially when the objective is forage production. Seed planting is manually performed, at a depth of 2 cm, and they germinate 10 days after that. This same author states that the number of seeds per kilogram varies between 15 000 and 25 000 per year. The germination time oscillates between five and seven days after planting. The seed does not require pregerminative treatments and shows high germination percentages, higher than 90%. However, when it is stored for more than two months its germinative capacity decreases (Sharma and Rains, 1982).
It can be reproduced by cuttings 1 to 1,40 m long, as in south India (Ramachandran et al., 1980), although to be transplanted in arid and semiarid regions, it is convenient to obtain the tree by seed, because it produces deeper roots. In the case of trees obtained by cuttings, the fruits appear six months after being planted.
The trees cultivated for forage are pruned to restrict the development of the crown and promote the growth of new branches (Ramachandran et al., 1980): After being cut they regrow vigorously and produce from four to eight regrowths per stump (Nautiyal and Venhataraman, 1987).
In the case of small producers, it can be planted by cuttings or in the living fences to later harvest the regrowth, which can be cut between 35 and 45 days, depending on the rainfall and fertilization. Planting should be performed in a spread out way in order to have availability of fresh forage at all times.
Pests and diseases
According to García Roa (2003), the prevailing pests in a marango plantation are the following: Spodoptera spp., Phantomorus femoratus and Atta spp.; the latter has the highest economic importance. For the control of defoliators and weevils manual elimination methods are used, because the populations are low.
Chemical composition, yield and intake Foidl et al. (1999) reported that it has 10% sugars and metabolizable energy in the leaves is 9,5 MJ/kg DM.
On the other hand, García et al. (2006) evaluated the chemical composition of six species in the Trujillo state, Venezuela, among which was M. oleifera. The crude protein content in all the plants was high. The P, Ca and Mg levels did not show important variations among the trees and the highest concentrations of K and Na were observed in M. oleifera (2,65 and 0,24%, respectively). This species, individually, showed one of the highest contents of soluble carbohydrates (24,1%) and ash (25,8%).
Table 2 shows the analyses performed on the leaves and young and mature stems of six-year old M. oleifera trees, sexually planted in Tolima, Colombia. The CP content exceeded 20% in the leaves and young as well as mature stems.
The chemical composition varies in correspondence with the plant fraction (Garavito, 2008); this author found the highest protein and metabolizable energy values in the leaves and the lowest crude fiber value (table 3).
The nutrient content of the species compared to that of other feedstuffs (for every 100 grams of edible part). In all cases, moringa showed a higher content of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium and potassium, as compared to carrot, orange, cow milk and banana, respectively (table 4).
García et al. (2009) evaluated M.oleifera in the nursery stage and in biomass production to feed it to the animals as supplement, and stated that it is a plant genetic resource which should be considered in livestock production systems under the conditions of Venezuela.
The dry matter yields can vary from 2,6 to 34,0 t/ha/cutting for densities of 95 and 16 million plants/hectare (table 5). In addition, the losses after pruning can be minimal with a density of up to 1 million plants/hectare (table 5).
On the other hand, when presenting the results of a project about the intensive cultivation of M. oleifera (Pérez, 2010) stated that it is an alternative for the production of high protein forage for feeding sheep in the center zone of Sinaloa, due to its adaptability and low production cost. In addition, it shows 70,5% dry matter apparent digestibility and 65,5% protein apparent digestibility.
Garavito (2008) ascribes great importance to M. oleifera in animal feeding, because due to the protein and vitamin contents it can be an important supplement in dairy and fattening cattle production, as well as in the diet of poultry, fish and pigs as direct feedstuff:
• A peculiar taste is present in the milk if at least three hours have not passed between the ingestion and milking.
• In pregnant cows there is an exaggerate growth of the calf in the uterus, for which an early parturition can occur.
• High water percentage in the fresh forage and low presence of fiber, for which it is necessary to dehydrate and balance with fiber from any pasture or harvest residue. Thus aqueous depositions are prevented.
Price (2000) reported that the milk production was 10 kg/cow/day using 40-50% moringa in the diet (without moringa it was 7 kg/animal/day). The daily weight increase in the fattening cattle was 1 200 g/day (900 g/day without moringa).
Foidl et al. (1999) recommend the utilization of moringa as fresh forage for cattle, with cutting intervals between 35 and 45 days, regarding the crop management conditions, which can reach a height of 1,2-2,5 m. When feeding with moringa begins an adaptation period is likely to be required and up to 27 kg of fresh material/animal/day have been supplied. The contents of antinutritional substances of moringa, such as tannins and saponins, are minimal and no trypsin or lectin inhibitors have been found.
On the other hand, Cova et al. (2007) studied in the Trujillo state, Venezuela, the performance of the red earthworm (Eisenia spp.) in five feeding substrata where the M. oleifera foliage was included, for its nutritional potential. Remarkable quantities of terpenes, lectins, saponins and tannins were found when the substrata had foliage from this species and the presence of earthworm or capsules was not observed since the second month of evaluation.
These authors stated that the negative effect of the M. oleifera foliage on the red earthworm feeding could have been conditioned by the presence of secondary metabolites with antinutritional and/or toxic properties.
The Fitomed Technical Commission (2010) warns that the stem resin is a little bit caustic; the leaf juice is a little irritating; the absorption of a large quantity of fruits can be toxic and the seeds have mutagenic compounds. The oil can not be orally consumed, in addition to the fact that its activity can be affected by light or the form of extraction.
Usages and properties
Green manure
Fugliee (2000) reports about the usage of moringa as green manure, which significantly enriches agricultural soils. In this process the soil is plowed first, then the seed is planted at a depth of 1-2 cm and at a 10 x 10 cm spacing (a density of one million seeds per hectare). After 25 days the seedlings are planted with the plow in the soil, at a depth of 15 cm. The soil is prepared again for the desired crop.
Russo (cited by Meléndez, 2000) pointed out that moringa could be used as support for banana plants; its fallen leaves would also serve as green manure, because they can provide important nitrogen quantities. The developed system utilizes M. oleifera established at a 6 x 2 m spacing, with a double row of banana tree established at 0,5 m from tree rows and a spacing of 1 x 1,5 m (2 222 plants/ha).
Water treatment and flocculant
Foidl et al. (1999) recommend the utilization of moringa as a natural flocculant, energetic, source of cellulose raw material and of plant-growth regulating hormones.
On the other hand, Muñoz et al. (2008) stated the importance of the introduction of natural coagulants in the water clarification processes for human consumption, as an adequate technology for the current economic conditions of Cuba. These authors report the results obtained in laboratory, when using the cotyledon of M. oleifera seeds in the clarification of water for human consumption.
González et al. (2006), when comparing their results with the ones reported by other researchers, observed that in the first two hours of treatment, the percentage of bacterial reduction, using the gummous exudates of Samanea saman was similar to the one obtained with M. oleifera seeds (90-99,9%). Studies reported by Rodríguez et al. (2006) show high levels of microorganism removal (99%) using M. oleifera as natural coagulant.
The seed powder can also be used to harvest algae from sewage, at present a costly process due to the use of centrifuges.
From the seeds a natural polyelectrolyte-type flocculant with anionic and cationic function is extracted, which is useful in the purification of drinking water and for the sedimentation of organic mineral particles in sewage. Likewise, it is useful in the pulp and juice industry to flocculate and sediment fibers, and in the brewing industry for yeast sedimentation, with which the murkiness is eliminated and shine is given to the beverage.
Ethanol and biodiesel production
Garavito (2008), belonging to the Agricultural and Livestock Ecological Corporation (Corporación Ecológica Agroganadera S.A.) from Colombia, recommended M. oleifera for ethanol and biodiesel production. A similar consideration was reached by Corella (2010), in Panama.
Falasca and Bernabé (2008) consider that it is an attractive crop for biodiesel production, mainly because its seeds contain 31-47% oil. The high value of oleic acid in the oil indicates that it is adequate for obtaining biodiesel.
Ayerza (2008) presented some results from Argentina about biofuels and highlighted the oil production from M. oleifera seeds; in addition, he found significant differences (p<0,05) in the oil content in a genotype called PKM-1, as compared to the African genotypes.
Living fence and windbreak
Croess and Villalobos (2008) stated that Moringa is a genus of plants with many species distributed in arid and semiarid zones, and in Venezuela (introduced as ornamental plant and living fence).
It can be used as living or windbreak. It prevents soil erosion in zones with intense drought periods and strong winds. It allows intercropping because it provides little shade and has scarce lateral roots (Becker and Nair, 2004).
According to Bosh (2009), moringa is a useful contribution to increase the use of living poles in livestock production, which was proven in a study conducted at the Experimental Station of Pastures and Forages of the Cuban province Las Tunas. The objective of this study was to prove the feasibility of planting, in small areas of the dairy units, such trees as Gliricidia sepium and M. oleifera, in order to obtain at low cost the necessary poles to enclose the pasturelands of each unit. In the trial the botanical seed of both species was planted at three different distances (20, 80 and 120 cm), cattle dung was applied as organic manure and periodical cultivation labors were periodically done.
The highest production was obtained with the G. sepium planted at a distance of 20cm, , which contributed 64 000 poles per hectare, with which 32km of living fence can be planted.
Other usages
Price (2000) recommends it for the production of antibiotic oils, growth hormone, for counteracting malnutrition in children and as foodstuff in general.
According to Foidl et al. (2001), the marango wood constitutes an excellent pulp as good as that of Populus sp. The leaves are appropriate for biogas production. Nevertheless, García Roa (2003) considers that marango does not have the physical-mechanical qualities to be considered a woody plant, for which it is not an adequate species for this purpose.
This author states that in addition to being good for living pole, it has a special characteristic which consists in being rich in pollen and nectar, and it is a meliferous plant par excellence. It is also a protein supplement (the seed cake contains 60% protein and the seed between 32 and 40% fat); it is an essential element for feeding in the dry season of cattle and sheep.
The oil extracted from its seed is highly useful in the industry of fixed machinery, besides being used in the industry of paints for textiles. Likewise, it is useful in the pulp and juice industry, to flocculate and sediment fibers, and in the brewing industry for yeast sedimentation. The seeds contain 30-42% of oil. After the oil extraction there is the protein cake, which can be used for livestock feeding.
Fugliee (2000) states that the juice of marango plants can be used to produce a hormone which is effective for plant growth, and increases the yield in 25-30% for almost all crops: onion, green pepper, soybean, corn, sorghum, coffee, tea, red pepper and melon.
On the other hand, Clamens et al. (1998), in studies conducted in Maracaibo, Venezuela, used M. oleifera in order to evaluate the gum-producing capacity. Gum production was found in 17 species belonging to eight families and although moringa was not one of the most outstanding in this type of product, it was among the ones selected for this purpose.
Moringa is a plant of multiple usages, because these gummous products are used in important types of industries, such as food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic industry and others; in the elaboration of the most diverse products, such as sweets, milk derivatives, canned foodstuffs, gaseous beverages, dietetic products, emulsions, tablets, colored sweets, syrups and suspensions, emulsions and creams, sticking tapes, paper, tints, paints, cloths and metals.
General considerations
The shrub M. oleifera has great ecological plasticity, because it is capable of adapting to the most diverse edaphoclimatic conditions. Its nutritional value and the high biomass yields make it an important plant genetic resource in production systems, which can be consumed by different animal categories.
Moringa is a plant of multiple usages and properties, such as living fence, windbreak, green manure, ethanol and gum production; hence it is an interesting species for the tropics.
